Buy a Member of the United States House of Representatives

Upper house of the Us Congress

Coordinates: 38°53′26″Northward 77°0′32″West  /  38.89056°N 77.00889°W  / 38.89056; -77.00889

United States Senate
117th United States Congress
Seal of the U.S. Senate
Flag of the U.Due south. Senate
Type
Type	Upper house of the United States Congress
Term limits	None
History
New session started	January 3, 2021 (2021-01-03)
Leadership
President of the Senate	Kamala Harris (D) since January twenty, 2021
President pro tempore	Patrick Leahy (D) since January 20, 2021
Majority Leader	Chuck Schumer (D) since January 20, 2021
Minority Leader	Mitch McConnell (R) since Jan twenty, 2021
Majority Whip	Dick Durbin (D) since Jan xx, 2021
Minority Whip	John Thune (R) since January twenty, 2021
Structure
Seats	100 51 (or 50 plus the Vice President) for a majority
Political groups	Majority (50) [a] Democratic (48) Contained (2) [b] Minority (50) Republican (l)
Length of term	6 years
Elections
Voting arrangement	Plurality voting in 46 states[c] Varies in iv states GA and MS: Two-circular system ME: Instant-runoff
Last ballot	Nov 3, 2020[d] (35 seats)
Next election	November 8, 2022 (34 seats)
Meeting place
Senate Bedchamber Usa Capitol Washington, D.C. United states
Website
senate.gov
Constitution
United States Constitution
Rules
Standing Rules of the U.s.a. Senate

The U.s.a. Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, with the House of Representatives being the lower bedroom. Together they etch the national bicameral legislature of the United states of america.

The limerick and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution.^[two] The Senate is equanimous of senators, each of whom represents a single land in its entirety. Each land is equally represented by ii senators who serve staggered terms of six years. In that location are currently 100 senators representing the fifty states. The vice president of the U.s. serves as presiding officeholder and president of the Senate by virtue of that office, and has a vote merely if the senators are every bit divided. In the vice president's absence, the president pro tempore, who is traditionally the senior member of the party belongings a bulk of seats, presides over the Senate.

As the upper sleeping room of Congress, the Senate has several powers of communication and consent which are unique to it. These include the approval of treaties, and the confirmation of Cabinet secretaries, federal judges (including Federal Supreme Courtroom justices) flag officers, regulatory officials, ambassadors, other federal executive officials and federal uniformed officers. If no candidate receives a majority of electors for vice president, the duty falls to the Senate to elect ane of the top two recipients of electors for that office. The Senate conducts trials of those impeached past the Business firm.

The Senate is widely considered both a more deliberative^[3] and more prestigious^{[4] [v] [six]} body than the Firm of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more than collegial and less partisan atmosphere.^[seven]

From 1789 to 1913, senators were appointed by legislatures of u.s.a. they represented. They are at present elected by popular vote following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. In the early on 1920s, the practice of bulk and minority parties electing their floor leaders began. The Senate's legislative and executive concern is managed and scheduled by the Senate majority leader.

The Senate chamber is located in the n wing of the Capitol Edifice in Washington, D.C.

History

The drafters of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily equally a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should exist equally represented, and those who felt the legislature must directly represent the people, as the Business firm of Commons did in United kingdom. This idea of having one bedchamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise. There was also a desire to have two Houses that could human action equally an internal bank check on each other. One was intended to be a "People's House" directly elected by the people, and with short terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to represent united states to such extent equally they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Constitution provides that the blessing of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.^[8]

Kickoff convened in 1789, the Senate of the United states of america was formed on the case of the ancient Roman Senate. The name is derived from the senatus, Latin for quango of elders (from senex significant old man in Latin).^[9]

James Madison made the following annotate about the Senate:

In England, at this 24-hour interval, if elections were open up to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon have place. If these observations remain just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country confronting innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to residue and bank check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability.^[ten]

—Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787

Article Five of the Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a country of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that state'due south consent. The Commune of Columbia and all other territories are non entitled to representation or allowed to vote in either house of Congress. They take official not-voting delegates in the House of Representatives, but none in the Senate. The District of Columbia and Puerto Rico each additionally elect ii "shadow senators", just they are officials of their respective local governments and not members of the U.S. Senate.^[eleven] The United States has had 50 states since 1959,^[12] thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959.^[8]

Graph showing historical political party control of the U.Southward. Senate, House and Presidency since 1855^[13]

The disparity between the nigh and least populous states has grown since the Connecticut Compromise, which granted each land ii members of the Senate and at least one member of the House of Representatives, for a total minimum of 3 presidential electors, regardless of population. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Isle, whereas today California has roughly lxx times the population of Wyoming, based on the 1790 and 2022 censuses. Earlier the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, senators were elected past the individual land legislatures.^[fourteen] Issues with repeated vacant seats due to the inability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, blackmail and intimidation gradually led to a growing movement to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct election of senators.^[15]

Current limerick and election results

Members of the Usa Senate for the 117th Congress

Current party standings

The party composition of the Senate during the 117th Congress:

Affiliation		Members
	Republican	fifty
	Democratic	48
	Independents	2[b]
Total		100

Membership

Qualifications

Article I, Department 3, of the Constitution, sets three qualifications for senators: (1) they must be at to the lowest degree thirty years old; (2) they must have been citizens of the United States for at least nine years; and (3) they must be inhabitants of us they seek to stand for at the time of their ballot. The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In Federalist No. 62, James Madison justified this arrangement by arguing that the "senatorial trust" chosen for a "greater extent of data and stability of graphic symbol":

A senator must exist thirty years of historic period at to the lowest degree; as a representative must exist twenty-5. And the former must accept been a citizen nine years; as seven years are required for the latter. The propriety of these distinctions is explained past the nature of the senatorial trust, which, requiring greater extent of information and stability of character, requires at the aforementioned time that the senator should have reached a menses of life about probable to supply these advantages; and which, participating immediately in transactions with foreign nations, ought to be exercised by none who are not thoroughly weaned from the prepossessions and habits incident to foreign birth and education. The term of nine years appears to be a prudent mediocrity betwixt a total exclusion of adopted citizens, whose merits and talents may merits a share in the public confidence, and an indiscriminate and hasty admission of them, which might create a aqueduct for foreign influence on the national councils.^[sixteen]

The Senate (non the judiciary) is the sole judge of a senator'south qualifications. During its early years, however, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. As a result, 4 senators who failed to meet the age requirement were yet admitted to the Senate: Henry Clay (aged 29 in 1806), John Jordan Crittenden (aged 29 in 1817), Armistead Thomson Bricklayer (anile 28 in 1816), and John Eaton (aged 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, however, has not been repeated since.^[17] In 1934, Rush D. Holt Sr. was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned 30 (on the next June 19) to take the oath of office. In November 1972, Joe Biden was elected to the Senate at the age of 29, but he reached his 30th altogether before the swearing-in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973.

The Fourteenth Amendment to the Us Constitution disqualifies every bit senators any federal or land officers who had taken the requisite adjuration to support the Constitution only who later engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the United states of america. This provision, which came into force soon after the end of the Civil War, was intended to prevent those who had sided with the Confederacy from serving. That Amendment, even so, also provides a method to remove that disqualification: a two-thirds vote of both chambers of Congress.

Elections and term

Originally, senators were selected by the state legislatures, not past popular elections. By the early years of the 20th century, the legislatures of as many equally 29 states had provided for popular election of senators past referendums.^[15] Popular election to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of the Seventeenth Subpoena.

Term

Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately 1-tertiary of the seats are up for ballot every two years. This was accomplished by dividing the senators of the 1st Congress into thirds (called classes), where the terms of ane-third expired later on ii years, the terms of some other tertiary expired later four, and the terms of the terminal third expired after six years. This arrangement was besides followed after the admission of new states into the matrimony. The staggering of terms has been arranged such that both seats from a given country are not contested in the aforementioned general election, except when a vacancy is existence filled. Current senators whose half-dozen-year terms are set to expire on January 3, 2023, vest to Grade Three. There is no constitutional limit to the number of terms a senator may serve.

The Constitution gear up the date for Congress to convene — Commodity 1, Section 4, Clause two, originally ready that engagement for the third mean solar day of December. The Twentieth Amendment, however, changed the opening date for sessions to noon on the third 24-hour interval of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. The Twentieth Amendment also states that the Congress shall assemble at to the lowest degree in one case every year, and allows the Congress to determine its convening and adjournment dates and other dates and schedules equally it desires. Commodity 1, Section three, provides that the president has the ability to convene Congress on extraordinary occasions at his discretion.^[18]

A member who has been elected, merely not yet seated, is called a senator-elect; a member who has been appointed to a seat, only non nevertheless seated, is called a senator-designate.

Elections

Elections to the Senate are held on the outset Tuesday after the first Monday in November in fifty-fifty-numbered years, Election Day, and coincide with elections for the House of Representatives.^[19] Senators are elected by their land equally a whole. The Elections Clause of the United States Constitution grants each land (and Congress, if information technology and so desires to implement a compatible law) the power to legislate a method by which senators are elected. Election access rules for independent and pocket-sized party candidates also vary from state to state.

In 45 states, a chief election is held first for the Republican and Democratic parties (and a select few third parties, depending on the state) with the full general election post-obit a few months later. In most of these states, the nominee may receive only a plurality, while in some states, a runoff is required if no bulk was accomplished. In the general election, the winner is the candidate who receives a plurality of the pop vote.

Withal, in five states, different methods are used. In Georgia, a runoff betwixt the top two candidates occurs if the plurality winner in the general election does not too win a majority. In California, Washington, and Louisiana, a nonpartisan blanket primary (also known as a "jungle master" or "tiptop-two main") is held in which all candidates participate in a unmarried primary regardless of political party affiliation and the top two candidates in terms of votes received at the primary election advance to the general election, where the winner is the candidate with the greater number of votes. In Louisiana, the blanket primary is considered the general election and candidates receiving a majority of the votes is declared the winner, skipping a run-off. In Maine and Alaska, ranked-choice voting is used to nominate and elect candidates for federal offices, including the Senate.^[20]

Vacancies

The Seventeenth Amendment requires that vacancies in the Senate exist filled by special election. Whenever a senator must be appointed or elected, the secretary of the Senate mails one of three forms to the state's governor to inform them of the proper wording to certify the appointment of a new senator.^[21] If a special election for one seat happens to coincide with a general ballot for the state'southward other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special ballot takes office as shortly every bit possible afterwards the election and serves until the original six-year term expires (i.e. not for a full-term).

The Seventeenth Subpoena permits state legislatures to empower their governors to make temporary appointments until the required special election takes place.

The style past which the Seventeenth Amendment is enacted varies among the states. A 2022 study breaks this down into the post-obit three broad categories (specific procedures vary amongst usa):^[22]

• Five states – North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin – do not empower their governors to brand temporary appointments, relying exclusively on the required special election provision in the Seventeenth Amendment.^{[22] : 7–8}
• 9 states – Alabama, Alaska, Connecticut, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Texas, Vermont, and Washington – provide for gubernatorial appointments, only also require a special election on an accelerated schedule.^{[22] : 10–11}
• The remaining thirty-six states provide for gubernatorial appointments, "with the appointed senator serving the residue of the term or until the next statewide general ballot".^{[22] : 8–9}

In six states inside the final category in a higher place – Arizona, Hawaii, Maryland, North Carolina, Utah, and Wyoming – the governor must appoint someone of the same party every bit the previous incumbent.^{[22] : 9}

In September 2009, Massachusetts changed its law to enable the governor to appoint a temporary replacement for the late senator Edward Kennedy until the special ballot in January 2010.^{[23] [24]}

In 2004, Alaska enacted legislation and a separate ballot plebiscite that took event on the same day, merely that conflicted with each other. The effect of the election-approved police force is to withhold from the governor authority to appoint a senator.^[25] Considering the 17th Amendment vests the power to grant that authority to the legislature – not the people or the state generally – it is unclear whether the ballot measure supplants the legislature's statute granting that potency.^[25] As a result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an acting senator to serve until a special election is held to fill the vacancy.

Adjuration

The Constitution requires that senators take an oath or affidavit to support the Constitution.^[26] Congress has prescribed the following oath for all federal officials (except the President), including senators:

I, ___ ___, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will back up and defend the Constitution of the Usa confronting all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I volition conduct true organized religion and allegiance to the same; that I accept this obligation freely, without whatsoever mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I volition well and faithfully belch the duties of the office on which I am almost to enter. So help me God.^[27]

Bacon and benefits

The annual salary of each senator, since 2009, is $174,000;^[28] the president pro tempore and party leaders receive $193,400.^{[28] [29]} In June 2003, at least twoscore senators were millionaires;^[30] in 2018, over 50 senators were millionaires.^[31]

Forth with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully vested afterwards v years of service.^[29] Senators are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement Organisation (FERS) or Ceremonious Service Retirement System (CSRS). FERS has been the Senate'due south retirement organisation since Jan 1, 1987, while CSRS applies simply for those senators who were in the Senate from December 31, 1986, and prior. As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute i.iii% of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay vi.2% of their bacon in Social Security taxes. The amount of a senator'southward alimony depends on the years of service and the boilerplate of the highest three years of their salary. The starting amount of a senator's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their last salary. In 2006, the boilerplate annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.^[29]

Seniority

Seniority is a factor in the selection of physical offices and in party caucuses' assignment of committees.^[32]

Expulsion and other disciplinary deportment

The Senate may expel a senator by a two-thirds vote. Fifteen senators have been expelled in the Senate'southward history: William Blount, for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the Confederate secession. Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many senators have chosen to resign when faced with expulsion proceedings – for example, Bob Packwood in 1995. The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; censure requires only a simple majority and does non remove a senator from part. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-election races rather than face certain censure or expulsion, such as Robert Torricelli in 2002.

Majority and minority parties

The "majority political party" is the political party that either has a majority of seats or tin form a coalition or caucus with a majority of seats; if ii or more parties are tied, the vice president'due south amalgamation determines which party is the majority political party. The side by side-largest party is known as the minority party. The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members" of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (and so long as they do not caucus support either of the larger parties) are non considered in determining which is the bulk party.

Seating

At 1 cease of the chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. One hundred desks are bundled in the chamber in a semicircular pattern and are divided past a wide key aisle. The Democratic Party traditionally sits to the presiding officeholder's right, and the Republican Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer's left, regardless of which political party has a majority of seats.^[33]

Each senator chooses a desk based on seniority within the political party. By custom, the leader of each party sits in the forepart row along the center aisle. Xl-eight of the desks date back to 1819, when the Senate chamber was reconstructed after the original contents were destroyed in the 1812 Burning of Washington. Further desks of similar design were added every bit new states entered the Wedlock.^[34] It is a tradition that each senator who uses a desk inscribes their name on the inside of the desk's drawer.^[35]

Officers

Except for the president of the Senate (who is the vice president), the Senate elects its own officers,^[2] who maintain society and decorum, manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate, and interpret the Senate's rules, practices and precedents. Many non-member officers are also hired to run various mean solar day-to-day functions of the Senate.

Presiding officer

Under the Constitution, the vice president serves as president of the Senate. They may vote in the Senate (ex officio, for they are not an elected member of the Senate) in the case of a tie, only are not required to.^[36] For much of the nation's history the chore of presiding over Senate sessions was one of the vice president'due south principal duties (the other being to receive from united states of america the tally of electoral ballots cast for president and vice president and to open the certificates "in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives", and so that the full votes could be counted). Since the 1950s, vice presidents have presided over few Senate debates. Instead, they take usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as swearing in new senators, joint sessions, or at times to announce the event of significant legislation or nomination, or when a tie vote on an important effect is anticipated.

The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a president pro tempore (Latin for "president for a time"), who presides over the bedchamber in the vice president'southward absence and is, past custom, the senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service.^[37] Like the vice president, the president pro tempore does not normally preside over the Senate, but typically delegates the responsibility of presiding to a bulk-party senator who presides over the Senate, unremarkably in blocks of 1 hour on a rotating basis. Frequently, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside so that they may become accustomed to the rules and procedures of the body. Information technology is said that, "in do they are unremarkably mere mouthpieces for the Senate'southward parliamentarian, who whispers what they should do".^[38]

The presiding officeholder sits in a chair in the front of the Senate chamber. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the speaker of the House. The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (by the rules of the Senate, the first senator who rises is recognized); ruling on points of guild (objections by senators that a rule has been breached, subject area to entreatment to the whole chamber); and announcing the results of votes.

Party leaders

Each political party elects Senate party leaders. Flooring leaders act as the party primary spokesmen. The Senate majority leader is responsible for controlling the agenda of the chamber by scheduling debates and votes. Each party elects an assistant leader (whip), who works to ensure that his party's senators vote as the party leadership desires.

Non-member officers

In addition to the vice president, the Senate has several officers who are non members. The Senate'south chief administrative officer is the secretarial assistant of the Senate, who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of stationery and supplies, and oversees clerks. The assistant secretarial assistant of the Senate aids the secretarial assistant's work. Another official is the sergeant at arms who, as the Senate's principal law enforcement officer, maintains guild and security on the Senate premises. The Capitol Police handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for general oversight. Other employees include the chaplain, who is elected past the Senate, and pages, who are appointed.

Process

Daily sessions

The Senate uses Continuing Rules for operation. Similar the House of Representatives, the Senate meets in the United states Capitol in Washington, D.C. At i end of the sleeping room of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are broadcast live on television, usually past C-Bridge two.

Senate procedure depends non but on the rules, but also on a variety of customs and traditions. The Senate normally waives some of its stricter rules by unanimous consent. Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand by party leaders. A senator may cake such an agreement, simply in practise, objections are rare. The presiding officer enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officer sometimes uses the gavel of the Senate to maintain order.

A "hold" is placed when the leader'south part is notified that a senator intends to object to a asking for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or laissez passer a mensurate. A hold may be placed for whatever reason and can be lifted by a senator at whatever time. A senator may place a concur simply to review a bill, to negotiate changes to the beak, or to kill the neb. A bill can exist held for every bit long equally the senator who objects to the pecker wishes to cake its consideration.

Holds can be overcome, but require time-consuming procedures such every bit filing cloture. Holds are considered private communications betwixt a senator and the leader, and are sometimes referred to as "cloak-and-dagger holds". A senator may disclose the placement of a agree.

The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and community of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum phone call past "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk and then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present. In do, senators rarely request quorum calls to establish the presence of a quorum. Instead, quorum calls are mostly used to temporarily delay proceedings; usually, such delays are used while waiting for a senator to achieve the floor to speak or to give leaders time to negotiate. Once the demand for a delay has ended, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call.

Debate

Contend, like most other matters governing the internal functioning of the Senate, is governed by internal rules adopted by the Senate. During a debate, senators may only speak if called upon by the presiding officer, just the presiding officer is required to recognize the kickoff senator who rises to speak. Thus, the presiding officer has little control over the course of the debate. Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates even if another senator rises commencement. All speeches must exist addressed to the presiding officer, who is addressed equally "Mr. President" or "Madam President", and non to another member; other Members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, senators exercise not refer to each other past name, but by state or position, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia", "the gentleman from California", or "my distinguished friend the chairman of the Judiciary Committee". Senators address the Senate standing next to their desks.^[39]

Apart from rules governing civility, there are few restrictions on the content of speeches; at that place is no requirement that speeches pertain to the matter earlier the Senate.

The rules of the Senate provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motility or bill on the same legislative day. A legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends with adjournment; hence, it does non necessarily coincide with the calendar day. The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please. Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits. In other cases (for example, for the upkeep process), limits are imposed past statute. Still, the right to unlimited argue is generally preserved.

Within the Usa, the Senate is sometimes referred to as "world'due south greatest deliberative body".^{[40] [41] [42]}

Filibuster and cloture

The delay is a tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely. A filibuster may entail long speeches, dilatory motions, and an all-encompassing series of proposed amendments. The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture. In well-nigh cases, cloture requires the back up of three-fifths of the Senate; however, if the matter before the Senate involves irresolute the rules of the body – this includes amending provisions regarding the filibuster – a two-thirds majority is required. In current practice, the threat of filibuster is more than important than its utilise; most any motion that does not have the back up of three-fifths of the Senate finer fails. This ways that 41 senators can make a filibuster happen. Historically, cloture has rarely been invoked considering bipartisan back up is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority, so a pecker that already has bipartisan support is rarely field of study to threats of filibuster. However, motions for cloture have increased significantly in recent years.

If the Senate invokes cloture, the debate does not necessarily end immediately; instead, it is limited to up to thirty additional hours unless increased by some other three-fifths vote. The longest delay voice communication in the Senate's history was delivered by Strom Thurmond (D-SC), who spoke for over 24 hours in an unsuccessful try to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.^[43]

Nether sure circumstances, the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 provides for a process called "reconciliation" by which Congress can laissez passer bills related to the upkeep without those bills being subject to a filibuster. This is achieved past limiting all Senate floor debate to 20 hours.^[44]

Voting

When the debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The Senate often votes by vocalisation vote. The presiding officer puts the question, and members reply either "Yea/Aye" (in favor of the motility) or "Nay" (against the movement). The presiding officeholder then announces the consequence of the voice vote. A senator, nonetheless, may claiming the presiding officer'south assessment and request a recorded vote. The request may exist granted simply if it is seconded past 1-fifth of the senators present. In practice, however, senators 2nd requests for recorded votes equally a affair of courtesy. When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the coil of the Senate in alphabetical order; senators respond when their proper noun is called. Senators who were not in the chamber when their proper name was called may withal cast a vote so long as the voting remains open up. The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer, but must remain open for a minimum of xv minutes. A bulk of those voting determines whether the motion carries.^[45] If the vote is tied, the vice president, if present, is entitled to bandage a necktie-breaking vote. If the vice president is not nowadays, the motion fails.^[46]

Filibustered bills require a three-fifths majority to overcome the cloture vote (which commonly means 60 votes) and get to the normal vote where a simple majority (usually 51 votes) approves the nib. This has caused some news media to confuse the 60 votes needed to overcome a filibuster with the 51 votes needed to corroborate a pecker, with for instance United states Today erroneously stating "The vote was 58–39 in favor of the provision establishing curtained carry permit reciprocity in the 48 states that have concealed weapons laws. That savage two votes short of the lx needed to approve the measure".^[45]

Closed session

On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session. During a closed session, the chamber doors are airtight, cameras are turned off, and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or non essential to the session. Closed sessions are rare and commonly held only when the Senate is discussing sensitive discipline matter such every bit information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or deliberations during impeachment trials. A senator may phone call for and force a closed session if the movement is seconded past at to the lowest degree 1 other member, but an agreement usually occurs beforehand.^[47] If the Senate does not approve the release of a secret transcript, the transcript is stored in the Office of Senate Security and ultimately sent to the national archives. The proceedings remain sealed indefinitely until the Senate votes to remove the injunction of secrecy.^[48] In 1973, the Firm adopted a rule that all committee sessions should be open unless a majority on the committee voted for a airtight session.

Calendars

The Senate maintains a Senate Calendar and an Executive Agenda.^[49] The former identifies bills and resolutions awaiting Senate flooring actions. The latter identifies executive resolutions, treaties, and nominations reported out by Senate committee(s) and awaiting Senate floor action. Both are updated each day the Senate is in session.

Committees

The Senate uses committees (and their subcommittees) for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. Formally, the whole Senate appoints committee members. In do, however, the selection of members is made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of private senators, giving priority based on seniority. Each political party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall strength.

Virtually committee work is performed by 16 standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a field such as finance or foreign relations. Each standing committee may consider, amend, and report bills that autumn under its jurisdiction. Furthermore, each standing committee considers presidential nominations to offices related to its jurisdiction. (For instance, the Judiciary Committee considers nominees for judgeships, and the Foreign Relations Commission considers nominees for positions in the Department of State.) Committees may block nominees and impede bills from reaching the floor of the Senate. Continuing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, continuing committees accept the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.

The Senate besides has several committees that are non considered standing committees. Such bodies are generally known as select or special committees; examples include the Select Commission on Ideals and the Special Committee on Aging. Legislation is referred to some of these committees, although the bulk of legislative piece of work is performed by the standing committees. Committees may be established on an ad hoc basis for specific purposes; for instance, the Senate Watergate Committee was a special committee created to investigate the Watergate scandal. Such temporary committees cease to exist after fulfilling their tasks.

The Congress includes articulation committees, which include members from both the Senate and the Business firm of Representatives. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Commission on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, in that location exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are non referred to joint committees. Hence, the ability of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.

Each Senate committee and subcommittee is led by a chair (normally a member of the majority party). Formerly, committee chairs were adamant purely by seniority; as a outcome, several elderly senators continued to serve equally chair despite severe concrete infirmity or even senility.^[50] Committee chairs are elected, but, in practice, seniority is rarely bypassed. The chairs hold extensive powers: they control the commission's agenda, and so make up one's mind how much, if whatsoever, time to devote to the consideration of a bill; they human activity with the power of the committee in disapproving or delaying a nib or a nomination by the president; they manage on the floor of the full Senate the consideration of those bills the committee reports. This last part was particularly of import in mid-century, when floor amendments were thought not to be collegial. They also accept considerable influence: senators who cooperate with their commission chairs are probable to accomplish more than good for their states than those who do not. The Senate rules and customs were reformed in the twentieth century, largely in the 1970s. Committee chairmen have less power and are by and large more moderate and collegial in exercising it, than they were before reform.^[51] The 2d-highest member, the spokesperson on the committee for the minority party, is known in most cases as the ranking member.^[52] In the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Select Committee on Ethics, all the same, the senior minority member is known equally the vice-chair.

Criticism

Recent criticisms of the Senate'southward operations object to what the critics argue is obsolescence as a result of partisan paralysis and a preponderance of cabalistic rules.^{[53] [54]}

The Senate filibuster is frequently debated. The Constitution specifies a simple majority threshold to pass legislation, and some critics feel the de facto 3-fifths threshold for general legislation prevents beneficial laws from passing. (The nuclear option was exercised past both parties in the 2010s to eliminate the filibuster for confirmations.) Supporters generally consider the delay to be an important protection for the minority views and a check against the unfettered single-party dominion when the same party holds the Presidency and a majority in both the House and Senate.

Though this was an intentional role of the Connecticut Compromise, critics accept described the fact that representation in the Senate is not proportional to the population equally "anti-democratic" and "minority rule".^{[55] [56]} New York Times opinion columnist David Leonhardt points out^[57] that because small states are disproportionately not-Hispanic European American, African Americans have 75% of their proportionate voting power in the Senate, and Hispanic Americans have just 55%. The approximately four meg Americans that have no representation in the Senate (in the District of Columbia and U.Due south. territories) are heavily African and Hispanic American. Leonhardt and others advocate for admitting Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico as states (both accept more than residents than the smallest existing states) to reduce this inequity.

Senate office buildings

External video
Senate Building, Washington DC, HD from 35mm

There are soon three Senate office buildings located along Constitution Avenue, north of the Capitol. They are the Russell Senate Office Building, the Dirksen Senate Office Edifice, and the Hart Senate Office Building.

Functions

Legislation

Bills may exist introduced in either chamber of Congress. However, the Constitution's Origination Clause provides that "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives".^[58] As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate cribbing bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds.^{[59] [60] [61] [62]} Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated past the House. Nevertheless, when the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House only refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing acquirement bills is based on the practice of the Parliament of the Britain, in which money bills canonical by Parliament have originated in the House of Commons per constitutional convention.^[63]

Although the Constitution gave the House the power to initiate acquirement bills, in do the Senate is equal to the House in the respect of spending. As Woodrow Wilson wrote:

The Senate's correct to better general appropriation bills has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add together to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them past the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.^[64]

The approval of both houses is required for any pecker, including a revenue bill, to get law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the nib; if at that place are differences, they may be resolved by sending amendments back and forth or by a conference commission, which includes members of both bodies.

Checks and balances

The Constitution provides several unique functions for the Senate that class its ability to "check and residue" the powers of other elements of the federal authorities. These include the requirement that the Senate may advise and must consent to some of the president's regime appointments; also the Senate must consent to all treaties with foreign governments; information technology tries all impeachments, and it elects the vice president in the event no person gets a bulk of the electoral votes.

The president can make certain appointments only with the advice and consent of the Senate. Officials whose appointments crave the Senate's approving include members of the Chiffonier, heads of almost federal executive agencies, ambassadors, justices of the Supreme Court, and other federal judges. Nether Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution, a large number of regime appointments are subject to potential confirmation; however, Congress has passed legislation to authorize the engagement of many officials without the Senate's consent (unremarkably, confirmation requirements are reserved for those officials with the most significant terminal decision-making authority). Typically, a nominee is the first bailiwick to a hearing before a Senate commission. Thereafter, the nomination is considered by the full Senate. The majority of nominees are confirmed, but in a modest number of cases each yr, Senate committees purposely fail to act on a nomination to cake information technology. In addition, the president sometimes withdraws nominations when they appear unlikely to be confirmed. Because of this, outright rejections of nominees on the Senate floor are exceptional (there have been only nine Cabinet nominees rejected outright in U.s. history).^[65]

The powers of the Senate concerning nominations are, yet, subject to some constraints. For case, the Constitution provides that the president may brand an appointment during a congressional recess without the Senate's advice and consent. The recess appointment remains valid only temporarily; the role becomes vacant again at the end of the next congressional session. Nevertheless, presidents take oftentimes used recess appointments to circumvent the possibility that the Senate may turn down the nominee. Furthermore, as the Supreme Court held in Myers v. United States, although the Senate's communication and consent are required for the appointment of certain executive branch officials, information technology is not necessary for their removal.^{[66] [67]} Recess appointments have faced a meaning amount of resistance and in 1960, the U.Southward. Senate passed a legally non-binding resolution against recess appointments.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Senate likewise has a role in ratifying treaties. The Constitution provides that the president may only "make Treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur" in social club to benefit from the Senate's advice and consent and give each state an equal vote in the procedure. Nevertheless, not all international agreements are considered treaties under U.S. domestic police force, fifty-fifty if they are considered treaties under international constabulary. Congress has passed laws authorizing the president to conclude executive agreements without action by the Senate. Similarly, the president may make congressional-executive agreements with the approving of a simple majority in each House of Congress, rather than a two-thirds bulk in the Senate. Neither executive agreements nor congressional-executive agreements are mentioned in the Constitution, leading some scholars such as Laurence Tribe and John Yoo^[68] to advise that they unconstitutionally circumvent the treaty-ratification process. However, courts have upheld the validity of such agreements.^[69]

The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors" and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. If the sitting president of the United States is being tried, the chief justice of the Usa presides over the trial. During an impeachment trial, senators are constitutionally required to sit down on oath or affirmation. Conviction requires a two-thirds majority of the senators nowadays. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in add-on, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding role. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; even so, the political party may confront criminal penalties in a normal court of law.

The House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted (one resigned before the Senate could complete the trial).^[seventy] Simply iii presidents take been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Nib Clinton in 1998, and Donald Trump in 2022 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton and both Trump trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate vicious 1 vote short of the two-thirds bulk required for confidence.

Under the Twelfth Subpoena, the Senate has the power to elect the vice president if no vice-presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to cull from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. Electoral College deadlocks are rare. The Senate has only broken a deadlock in one case; in 1837, it elected Richard Mentor Johnson. The House elects the president if the Electoral College deadlocks on that pick.

See also

• Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the Usa Senate
• Elections in the United states
• List of African-American United States senators
• United States presidents and control of Congress
• Women in the United States Senate

Notes

1. ^ Democrats are in the majority due to the tiebreaking ability of Democratic Vice President Kamala Harris, who serves ex officio as the president of the Senate.
2. ^ ^{a b} The independent senators, Angus King of Maine and Bernie Sanders of Vermont, caucus with the Democrats.^[1]
3. ^ Alaska (for its main elections only), California, and Washington additionally utilise a nonpartisan blanket primary, and Louisiana uses a Louisiana principal, for their corresponding chief elections.
4. ^ As well the Georgia runoff election and the Georgia special runoff ballot held on Jan 5, 2021.

References

1. ^ "Maine Contained Angus Male monarch To Caucus With Senate Democrats". Politico. November fourteen, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2020. Angus Rex of Maine, who cruised to victory last week running equally an contained, said Wednesday that he volition conclave with Senate Democrats. [...] The Senate's other contained, Bernie Sanders of Vermont, too caucuses with the Democrats.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Constitution of the U.s.a.". Senate.gov. March 26, 2009. Retrieved October iv, 2010.
3. ^ Amar, Vik D. (January 1, 1988). "The Senate and the Constitution". The Yale Law Journal. 97 (vi): 1111–1130. doi:10.2307/796343. JSTOR 796343. S2CID 53702587.
4. ^ Stewart, Charles; Reynolds, Mark (Jan 1, 1990). "Television Markets and U.S. Senate Elections". Legislative Studies Quarterly. 15 (4): 495–523. doi:10.2307/439894. JSTOR 439894.
5. ^ Richard 50. Berke (September 12, 1999). "In Fight for Control of Congress, Tough Skirmishes Within Parties". The New York Times.
6. ^ Joseph S. Friedman (March 30, 2009). "The Rapid Sequence of Events Forcing the Senate's Hand: A Reappraisal of the Seventeenth Amendment, 1890–1913". Curej – College Undergraduate Research Electronic Periodical.
7. ^ Lee, Frances E. (June 16, 2006). "Agreeing to Disagree: Calendar Content and Senate Partisanship, 198". Legislative Studies Quarterly. 33 (2): 199–222. doi:ten.3162/036298008784311000.
8. ^ ^{a b} "U.South. Constitution: Article i, Section 1". Retrieved March 22, 2012.
9. ^ "Merriam-Webster'due south Online Lexicon: senate". Retrieved March 22, 2012.
10. ^ Robert Yates. Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787 . Retrieved March 17, 2017.
11. ^ "Not-voting members of Congress". Archived from the original on November 23, 2010. Retrieved March 22, 2011.
12. ^ "Hawaii becomes 50th country". History.com . Retrieved March 22, 2011.
13. ^ "Party In Power – Congress and Presidency – A Visual Guide To The Balance of Ability In Congress, 1945–2008". Uspolitics.most.com. Archived from the original on November ane, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2012.
14. ^ Commodity I, Section 3: "The Senate of the United States shall be equanimous of two senators from each country, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; each Senator shall have i vote."
15. ^ ^{a b} "Straight Election of Senators". U.South. Senate official website. Retrieved April 23, 2019.
16. ^ Federalist Papers, No. 62, Library of Congress.
17. ^ 1801–1850, November 16, 1818: Youngest Senator. United States Senate. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
18. ^ Dates of Sessions of the Congress. United States Senate. Retrieved June 17, 2020.
19. ^ 2 UsC. § 1
20. ^ Brooks, James (December xiv, 2020). "Election audit confirms win for Election Measure 2 and Alaska's new ranked-pick voting system". Anchorage Daily News . Retrieved January 10, 2021.
21. ^ "The Term of A Senator – When Does It Brainstorm and End? – Senate 98-29" (PDF). United States Senate. United States Press Function. pp. xiv–fifteen. Retrieved Nov 13, 2015.
22. ^ ^{a b c d east} Neale, Thomas H. (April 12, 2018). "U.S. Senate Vacancies: Gimmicky Developments and Perspectives" (PDF). fas.org. Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 5, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. Annotation: wherever present, references to page numbers in superscripts refer to the electronic (.pdf) pagination, not as found printed on the bottom margin of displayed pages.
23. ^ DeLeo, Robert A. (September 17, 2009). "Temporary Engagement of US Senator". Massachusetts Great and General Courtroom.
24. ^ DeLeo, Robert A. (September 17, 2009). "Temporary Appointment of US Senator Shall not be a candidate in special election". Massachusetts Great and General Court.
25. ^ ^{a b} "Stevens could keep seat in Senate". Anchorage Daily News. October 28, 2009. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009.
26. ^ Usa Constitution, Commodity VI
27. ^ Run into: v U.S.C. § 3331; see as well: U.S. Senate Adjuration of Office
28. ^ ^{a b} Salaries. United States Senate. Retrieved October 2, 2013.
29. ^ ^{a b c} "United states of america Congress Salaries and Benefits". Usgovinfo.about.com. Retrieved October 2, 2013.
30. ^ Sean Loughlin and Robert Yoon (June 13, 2003). "Millionaires populate U.South. Senate". CNN. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
31. ^ "Wealth of Congress". Roll Call . Retrieved November 8, 2018.
32. ^ Baker, Richard A. "Traditions of the United States Senate" (PDF). Page 4.
33. ^ "Seating Organization". Senate Chamber Desks. Retrieved July 11, 2012.
34. ^ "Senate Bedchamber Desks – Overview". Usa Senate.
35. ^ "Senate Chamber Desks – Desk-bound Occupants". United States Senate.
36. ^ "Glossary Term: vice president". senate.gov. United States Senate. Retrieved Nov ten, 2016.
37. ^ "Glossary Term: president pro tempore". senate.gov. U.s. Senate. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
38. ^ Mershon, Erin (August 2011). "Presiding Loses Its Prestige in Senate". Roll Telephone call. rollcall.com. Retrieved February eight, 2017.
39. ^ Martin B. Gilded, Senate Procedure and Practice, p.39: Every fellow member, when he speaks, shall address the chair, standing in his place, and when he has finished, shall sit down.
40. ^ "The World'due south Greatest Deliberative Body". Time. July 5, 1993. Archived from the original on August xi, 2009.
41. ^ "World's greatest deliberative body sentinel". The Washington Post.
42. ^ "Senate reform: Lazing on a Senate afternoon". The Economist . Retrieved October four, 2010.
43. ^ Quinton, Jeff. "Thurmond's Delay". Backcountry Conservative. July 27, 2003. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
44. ^ Reconciliation, 2 U.South.C. § 641(e) (Process in the Senate).
45. ^ ^{a b} "How bulk rule works in the U.Southward. Senate". Nieman Watchdog. July 31, 2009.
46. ^ "Yea or Nay? Voting in the Senate". Senate.gov. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
47. ^ Amer, Mildred (March 27, 2008). "Secret Sessions of Congress: A Cursory Historical Overview" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on Baronial 6, 2009.
48. ^ Amer, Mildred (March 27, 2008). "Secret Sessions of the House and Senate" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August six, 2009.
49. ^ "Calendars & Schedules" via Senate.gov
50. ^ See, for examples, American Lexicon of National Biography on John Sherman and Carter Drinking glass; in general, Ritchie, Congress, p. 209
51. ^ Ritchie, Congress, p. 44. Zelizer, On Capitol Hill describes this procedure; one of the reforms is that seniority within the bulk party tin can now be bypassed, and so that chairs practise run the risk of being deposed by their colleagues. Run into in particular p. 17, for the unreformed Congress, and pp.188–ix, for the Stevenson reforms of 1977.
52. ^ Ritchie, Congress, pp .44, 175, 209
53. ^ Marking Murray (August 2, 2010). "The inefficient Senate". Firstread.msnbc.msn.com. Archived from the original on August ten, 2010. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
54. ^ Packer, George (Jan vii, 2009). "Filibusters and arcane obstructions in the Senate". The New Yorker . Retrieved Oct 4, 2010.
55. ^ How Democratic Is the American Constitution?
56. ^ Sizing Up the Senate
57. ^ The Senate: Affirmative Activity for White People
58. ^ "Constitution of the United States". Senate.gov. Retrieved Jan 1, 2012.
59. ^ Saturno, James. "The Origination Clause of the U.South. Constitution: Estimation and Enforcement", CRS Study for Congress (Mar-15-2011).
60. ^ Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the United states Senate, p. 188 (Taylor & Francis 2004).
61. ^ Woodrow Wilson wrote that the Senate has extremely broad amendment authority with regard to appropriations bills, every bit distinguished from bills that levy taxes. See Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics, pp. 155–156 (Transaction Publishers 2002).
62. ^ According to the Library of Congress, the Constitution provides the origination requirement for revenue bills, whereas tradition provides the origination requirement for appropriation bills. See Sullivan, John. "How Our Laws Are Made Archived October 16, 2015, at the Wayback Motorcar", Library of Congress (accessed August 26, 2013).
63. ^ Sargent, Noel. "Bills for Raising Revenue Under the Federal and State Constitutions", Minnesota Police force Review, Vol. 4, p. 330 (1919).
64. ^ Wilson Congressional Government, Chapter Iii: "Revenue and Supply". Text mutual to all printings or "editions"; in Papers of Woodrow Wilson it is Vol.four (1968), p.91; for unchanged text, see p. thirteen, ibid.
65. ^ Male monarch, Elizabeth. "This Is What Happened Concluding Fourth dimension a Chiffonier Nomination Was Rejected". time.com. Time USA, LLC. Retrieved Apr eleven, 2020.
66. ^ Recess Appointments FAQ (PDF). US Senate, Congressional Research Service. Retrieved November xx, 2007
67. ^ Ritchie, Congress p. 178.
68. ^ Bolton, John R. (January five, 2009). "Restore the Senate's Treaty Power". The New York Times.
69. ^ For an instance, and a discussion of the literature, see Laurence Tribe, "Taking Text and Structure Seriously: Reflections on Gratis-Class Method in Constitutional Interpretation", Harvard Police force Review, Vol. 108, No. half dozen. (April 1995), pp. 1221–1303.
70. ^ Complete list of impeachment trials. Archived December viii, 2010, at WebCite United states Senate. Retrieved November 20, 2007

Bibliography

• Baker, Richard A. The Senate of the U.s.: A Bicentennial History Krieger, 1988.
• Baker, Richard A., ed., Offset Among Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century Congressional Quarterly, 1991.
• Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, The Almanac of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (1975); new edition every 2 years
• David W. Brady and Mathew D. McCubbins. Party, Procedure, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002)
• Caro, Robert A. The Years of Lyndon Johnson. Vol. 3: Chief of the Senate. Knopf, 2002.
• Comiskey, Michael. Seeking Justices: The Judging of Supreme Court Nominees U. Press of Kansas, 2004.
• Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation XII: 2005–2008: Politics and Policy in the 109th and 110th Congresses (2010); massive, highly detailed summary of Congressional activity, as well as major executive and judicial decisions; based on Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report and the almanac CQ almanac. The Congress and the Nation 2009–2012 vol Xiii has been announced for September 2022 publication.
  • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004 (2005);
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001 (2002)
  • Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996 (1998)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992 (1993)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988 (1989)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984 (1985)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980 (1981)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976 (1977)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972 (1973)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968 (1969)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964 (1965), the start of the series
• Cooper, John Milton, Jr. Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations. Cambridge U. Press, 2001.
• Davidson, Roger H., and Walter J. Oleszek, eds. (1998). Congress and Its Members, 6th ed. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly. (Legislative procedure, informal practices, and member information)
• Gould, Lewis L. The Most Sectional Guild: A History Of The Mod United States Senate (2005)
• Hernon, Joseph Martin. Profiles in Character: Hubris and Heroism in the U.S. Senate, 1789–1990 Sharpe, 1997.
• Hoebeke, C. H. The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Subpoena. Transaction Books, 1995. (Pop elections of senators)
• Lee, Frances E. and Oppenheimer, Bruce I. Sizing Up the Senate: The Diff Consequences of Equal Representation. U. of Chicago Printing 1999. 304 pp.
• MacNeil, Neil and Richard A. Bakery. The American Senate: An Insider's History. Oxford Academy Press, 2013. 455 pp.
• McFarland, Ernest W. The Ernest W. McFarland Papers: The United States Senate Years, 1940–1952. Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995 (Democratic majority leader 1950–52)
• Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952. Susquehanna U. Printing 2000
• Mann, Robert. The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights. Harcourt Brace, 1996
• Ritchie, Donald A. (1991). Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. Harvard University Press.
• Ritchie, Donald A. (2001). The Congress of the The states: A Pupil Companion (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Ritchie, Donald A. (2010). The U.Southward. Congress: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
• Rothman, David. Politics and Power the United States Senate 1869–1901 (1966)
• Swift, Elaine K. The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Modify in Congress, 1787–1841. U. of Michigan Printing, 1996
• Valeo, Frank. Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Unlike Kind of Senate, 1961–1976 Sharpe, 1999 (Senate Democratic leader)
• VanBeek, Stephen D. Post-Passage Politics: Bicameral Resolution in Congress. U. of Pittsburgh Press 1995
• Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. Joe T. Robinson: Ever a Loyal Democrat. U. of Arkansas Press, 1998. (Arkansas Democrat who was Majority leader in 1930s)
• Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Regime. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1885; also 15th ed. 1900, repr. by photoreprint, Transaction books, 2002.
• Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the The states Senate Johns Hopkins U. Printing, 2004. (Early history)
• Zelizer, Julian Eastward. On Capitol Colina : The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000 (2006)
• Zelizer, Julian E., ed. The American Congress: The Building of Commonwealth (2004) (overview)

Official Senate histories

• Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774–1989

The post-obit are published by the Senate Historical Role.

• Robert Byrd. The Senate, 1789–1989. Iv volumes.
  • Vol. I, a chronological series of addresses on the history of the Senate
  • Vol. II, a topical serial of addresses on various aspects of the Senate's operation and powers
  • Vol. Iii, Archetype Speeches, 1830–1993
  • Vol. IV, Historical Statistics, 1789–1992
• Dole, Bob. Historical Almanac of the United States Senate
• Hatfield, Mark O., with the Senate Historical Office. Vice Presidents of the Us, 1789–1993 (essays reprinted online)
• Frumin, Alan S. Riddick's Senate Procedure. Washington, D.C.: Authorities Printing Office, 1992.

External links

This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 4 August 2006 (2006-08-04), and does not reflect subsequent edits.

• The United States Senate Official Website
  • Sortable contact data
  • Senate Sleeping accommodation Map
  • Standing Rules of the Senate
  • Biographical Directory of the U.s.a. Congress, 1774 to Present
• Listing of Senators who died in office, via PoliticalGraveyard.com
• Chart of all U.Due south. Senate seat-holders, past state, 1978–present, via Texas Tech University
• A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 Archived July 25, 2008, at the Wayback Automobile, via Tufts University
• Pecker Hammons' American Politics Guide – Members of Congress by Committee and State with Partisan Voting Index Archived December 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
• Works past or about U.s. Senate at Internet Annal
• First U.S. Senate session aired past C-Span via C-Span
• Senate Manual via govinfo.gov (U.S. Government Publishing Office)
• Us Senate Calendars and Schedules
• Data nearly U.S. Bills and Resolutions Archived Jan 2, 2020, at the Wayback Car
• Works past United States Senate at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate

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